• Astronomy and astrophysics 1
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Astrophysics

Astrophysics is the part of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties (luminosity, density, temperature, chemical composition) of astronomical objects such as stars, galaxies, and the interstellar medium, as well as their interactions. The study of cosmology is theoretical astrophysics at its largest scale; conversely, since the energies involved in cosmology, especially the Big Bang, are the largest known, the observations of the cosmos also serve as the laboratory for physics at its smallest scales as well.

In practice, virtually all modern astronomical research involves a substantial amount of physics. The name of a school's doctoral program ("Astrophysics" or "Astronomy") in many places like the United States often has to do more with the department's history than with the contents of the programs.

Table of contents

1 History 2 Observational astrophysics 3 Theoretical astrophysics 4 Astrophysicists

History

For centuries, the apparently common-sense view that the Sun and other planets went round the Earth went unquestioned, until Nicolaus Copernicus suggested in the 16th century that the Earth and all the other planets in the Solar System orbited the Sun. Galileo Galilei made quantitative measurements central to physics, but in astronomy his observation didn't have astrophysical significance.

The availability of accurate observational data led to research into theoretical explanations for the observed behavior. At first, only ad-hoc rules were discovered, such as Kepler's laws of planetary motion, discovered at the start of the 17th century. Later that century, Isaac Newton, bridged the gap between Kepler's laws and Galileo's dynamics, discovering that the same laws that rule the dynamics of objects on earth rules the motion of planets and the moon. Celestial mechanics, the application of Newtonian gravity and Newton's laws to explain Kepler's laws of planetary motion, was the first unification of astronomy and physics.

After Isaac Newton published his Principia, maritime navigation was transformed. Starting around 1670, the entire world was measured using essentially modern latitude instruments and the best available clocks. The needs of navigation provided a drive for progressively more accurate astronomical observations and instruments, providing a background for ever more available data for scientists.

At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of spectral lines were observed (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique chemical elements. In this way it was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun (chiefly hydrogen and helium) were also found on Earth. During the 20th century, spectrometry (the study of these spectral lines) advanced, particularly as a result of the advent of quantum physics that was necessary to understand the astronomical and experimental observations.

Observational astrophysics

The majority of astrophysical observations are made using the electromagnetic spectrum.

• Radio astronomy studies radiation with a wavelength greater than a few millimeters. Radio waves are usually emitted by cold objects, including interstellar gas and dust clouds. The cosmic microwave background radiation is the redshifted light from the Big Bang. Pulsars were first detected at microwave frequencies. The study of these waves requires very large radio telescopes.
• Infrared astronomy studies radiation with a wavelength that is too long to be visible but shorter than radio waves. Infrared observations are usually made with telescopes similar to the usual optical telescopes. Objects colder than stars (such as planets) are normally studied at infrared frequencies.
• Optical astronomy is the oldest kind of astronomy. Telescopes and spectroscopes are the most common instruments used. The Earth's atmosphere interferes somewhat with optical observations, so adaptive optics and space telescopes are used to obtain the highest possible image quality. In this range, stars are highly visible, and many chemical spectra can be observed to study the chemical composition of stars, galaxies and nebulae.
• Ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray astronomy study very energetic processes such as binary pulsars, black holes, magnetars, and many others. These kinds of radiation do not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere well, so they are studied with space-based telescopes such as RXTE, the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory.

Observations can also vary in their time scale. Most optical observations take minutes to hours, so phenomena that change faster than this cannot readily be observed. However, historical data on some objects is available spanning centuries or millenia. On the other hand, radio observations may look at events on a millisecond timescale (millisecond pulsars) or combine years of data (pulsar deceleration studies). The information obtained from these different timescales is very different.

The study of our own Sun has a special place in observational astrophysics. Due to the tremendous distance of all other stars, the Sun can be observed in a kind of detail unparalleled by any other star. Our understanding of our own sun serves as a guide to our understanding of other stars.

The topic of how stars change, or stellar evolution, is often modelled by placing the varieties of star types in their respective positions on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, which can be viewed as representing the state of a stellar object, from birth to destruction. The material composition of the astronomical objects can often be examined using:

• spectroscopy
• radio astronomy
• astronomical observatories

Theoretical astrophysicists create and evaluate models to reproduce and predict observations. They use a wide variety of tools which include analytical models (for example, polytropes to approximate the behaviors of a star) and computational numerical simulations.

A few examples of this process:

Physical process	Experimental tool	Theoretical model	Explains/predicts
Gravitation	Radio telescopes	Self-gravitating system	Emergence of a star system
Nuclear fusion	Spectroscopy	Stellar evolution	How the stars shine
Big Bang	Hubble Space Telescope, COBE	Expanding universe	Age of the Universe
Quantum fluctuations		Cosmic inflation	Flatness problem
Gravitational collapse	X-ray astronomy	General relativity	Black holes at the center of Andromeda galaxy

Astrophysicists

• Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure
• Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae
• Timeline of black hole physics
• Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity

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